UPESSC PGT Sociology – Study Material
Part 1: Units 1–8 (Foundations, Thinkers, Theories, Institutions)

Unit 1 – Meaning, Origin, Scope of Sociology

1.1 Meaning & origin

• The word Sociology comes from the Latin socius (companion, associate) and the Greek logos (study, science). Literally, it means the "science of society".
• Auguste Comte coined the term "Sociology" in 1838 in Vol. 4 of Cours de philosophie positive. He first called it "Social Physics".
• Comte is called the "Father of Sociology". Durkheim is often called the founder of academic or scientific sociology.
• Sociology emerged in 19th-century Europe because of the French Revolution (1789), the Industrial Revolution, the Enlightenment, urbanisation and the growth of the scientific method.

1.2 Important definitions

1.3 Scope – two schools

1.4 Nature of Sociology (Robert Bierstedt, The Social Order)

1. A social science, not a natural science
2. A categorical (positive) science, not a normative one. It studies "what is", not "what ought to be".
3. A pure science, not an applied one
4. An abstract science, not a concrete one
5. A generalising science, not a particularising one
6. Both a rational and an empirical science
7. A general science, not a special one

1.5 Relation with other social sciences

1.6 Development of Sociology in India

• 1919: the first Department of Sociology in India was set up at the University of Bombay, headed by Patrick Geddes. G.S. Ghurye joined in 1924 and headed it until 1959.
• 1917: Sociology teaching began at Calcutta University (Brajendranath Seal).
• 1921: Lucknow University (Radhakamal Mukerjee, with D.P. Mukerji and D.N. Majumdar, formed the "Lucknow School").
• 1951: Indian Sociological Society founded by G.S. Ghurye; its journal Sociological Bulletin started in 1952.
• World: the first Department of Sociology was at the University of Chicago, 1892 (Albion Small). The first journal was the American Journal of Sociology, 1895. Durkheim founded L'Année Sociologique in 1898.
• "Father of Indian Sociology": G.S. Ghurye. "Father of Indian Anthropology": Sarat Chandra Roy.

1.7 Positivism vs Anti-positivism

Unit 2 – Western Sociological Thinkers

2.1 Auguste Comte (1798–1857), France

• He was secretary to Saint-Simon, and was influenced by him.
• Main books: Course in Positive Philosophy (Cours de philosophie positive, 6 vols, 1830–1842); System of Positive Polity (1851–1854).
• Law of Three Stages (development of the human mind and society):
  1. Theological / Fictitious stage: events are explained by supernatural forces. Sub-stages: fetishism → polytheism → monotheism. Society is ruled by priests and the military.
  2. Metaphysical / Abstract stage: events are explained by abstract forces such as "nature". Lawyers and philosophers dominate.
  3. Positive / Scientific stage: events are explained by observation and scientific laws. Scientists and industrialists lead.
• Hierarchy of Sciences (from general and simple to complex): Mathematics → Astronomy → Physics → Chemistry → Biology → Sociology. Sociology is the "queen of sciences".
• Social Statics (order, stability, structure) and Social Dynamics (progress, change).
• Methods: observation, experimentation, comparison and the historical method.
• Religion of Humanity: late in life, he proposed a "positive religion" with humanity as the "Great Being".

2.2 Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), England

• Main books: Social Statics (1851), First Principles (1862), Principles of Biology (1864), The Study of Sociology (1873), Principles of Sociology (3 vols, 1876–1896), The Man Versus the State (1884).
• He coined the phrase "Survival of the fittest" (1864), not Darwin. Spencer is the father of Social Darwinism.
• Organic Analogy: society is like a living organism. Both grow, become more complex and differentiated, and have interdependent parts. The differences: society has no single consciousness, and its parts (individuals) are free.
• Theory of Social Evolution: evolution moves from simple to compound, from homogeneity to heterogeneity, from indefinite to definite, and from incoherence to coherence. Society types by composition: simple, compound, doubly compound, trebly compound.
• Militant vs Industrial society: militant societies are based on compulsory cooperation and centralised control; industrial societies on voluntary cooperation and individual freedom.
• Super-organic evolution: evolution of society and culture beyond the organic level.
• Supported laissez-faire, with minimum state intervention.

2.3 Karl Marx (1818–1883), Germany

• Main books: Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844), The German Ideology (1845–46, with Engels), The Poverty of Philosophy (1847), The Communist Manifesto (1848, with Friedrich Engels), The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852), A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859), Das Kapital Vol. 1 (1867).
• Historical Materialism / Economic Determinism: the economic base (mode of production) determines the rest of society.
  • Base (infrastructure): forces of production (tools, technology, labour) + relations of production (ownership).
  • Superstructure: law, politics, religion, family, education, ideology.
• Dialectical materialism: he took Hegel's dialectic (thesis–antithesis–synthesis) and applied it to material conditions. Marx said he turned Hegel "right side up".
• Stages of history: Primitive Communism → Ancient (Slave) → Feudal → Capitalist → Socialist → Communist. He also described an "Asiatic mode of production".
• Class Struggle: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." (Communist Manifesto). In capitalism: Bourgeoisie (owners) vs Proletariat (workers). Lumpenproletariat = the lowest, unorganised layer.
• Class-in-itself (objective class position) → Class-for-itself (class consciousness). False consciousness means the workers accept the ruling ideology.
• Alienation (1844 Manuscripts), four types: from the product, from the process of production, from species-being (human nature), and from other humans.
• Surplus Value: the difference between the value labour produces and the wage paid. This is the source of profit and exploitation.
• "Religion is the opium of the people" (from A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, 1843–44).
• "Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose but your chains."

2.4 Emile Durkheim (1858–1917), France

• He taught social science at Bordeaux from 1887, moved to the Sorbonne (Paris) in 1902, and founded L'Année Sociologique in 1898.
• Main books (memorise the order):

  Year	Book	Key ideas
  1893	The Division of Labour in Society	Mechanical & organic solidarity; repressive & restitutive law; collective conscience
  1895	The Rules of Sociological Method	Social facts; normal vs pathological; "treat social facts as things"
  1897	Suicide	Four types of suicide; integration and regulation
  1912	The Elementary Forms of Religious Life	Sacred & profane; totemism (Australian Arunta tribe); collective effervescence

• Social Fact: "ways of acting, thinking and feeling, external to the individual and endowed with a power of coercion". Two features: externality and constraint. "Consider social facts as things."
• Solidarity:

  Mechanical solidarity	Organic solidarity
  Simple, traditional societies	Modern, industrial societies
  Based on similarity (likeness)	Based on difference and interdependence (division of labour)
  Strong collective conscience	Weak collective conscience, more individualism
  Repressive (penal) law	Restitutive (civil) law

• Suicide – four types:

  Type	Cause	Example
  Egoistic	Too little integration	Unmarried people, Protestants (more than Catholics)
  Altruistic	Too much integration	Soldiers, sati, Japanese hara-kiri
  Anomic	Too little regulation (normlessness, sudden change)	Economic boom or crash, sudden divorce
  Fatalistic	Too much regulation	Slaves, prisoners (discussed only in a footnote)

• Anomie: a state of normlessness. It appears in Division of Labour and Suicide.
• Religion (definition): "a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things... which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them." Society worships itself through the totem.
• Collective representations are shared ideas, symbols and beliefs. Durkheim also wrote on moral education and education as "methodical socialisation of the young generation".

2.5 Max Weber (1864–1920), Germany

• Main books: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904–05), The Methodology of the Social Sciences, The Religion of China (1915), The Religion of India (1916), Ancient Judaism, Economy and Society (published after his death, 1922).
• Social Action: action is "social" when the actor attaches a subjective meaning to it and it takes into account the behaviour of others. Four types:
  1. Zweckrational – goal-rational or instrumental (means–ends calculation)
  2. Wertrational – value-rational (action for a value, whatever the result)
  3. Affectual – driven by emotion
  4. Traditional – driven by custom or habit
• Verstehen = interpretive understanding of the actor's meaning.
• Ideal Type = a mental construct made by exaggerating the main features of a phenomenon. It is a tool for comparison, not an "ideal" in the moral sense. Examples: bureaucracy, capitalism.
• Authority (legitimate power), three types: Traditional, Charismatic, Legal-Rational. Charisma becomes routine over time ("routinisation of charisma").
• Bureaucracy (ideal type): hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, specialisation, appointment on merit, salaried officials, files and records. Weber warned of the "iron cage" of rationality.
• Protestant Ethic: the Calvinist belief in predestination created anxiety, which led to hard work, saving and worldly asceticism. This "spirit" helped modern capitalism grow.
• Stratification: three dimensions – Class (economic), Status (social honour), Party (power).
• Rationalisation and disenchantment of the world; value-neutrality (Wertfreiheit) in research.

2.6 Other thinkers often asked (bonus)

Unit 3 – Indian Sociological Thinkers

3.1 G.S. Ghurye (Govind Sadashiv Ghurye, 1893–1983)

• "Father of Indian Sociology". He headed the Bombay Department 1924–1959, studied under W.H.R. Rivers at Cambridge, and founded the Indian Sociological Society (1951).
• Approach: Indological / textual, using Sanskrit texts, combined with ethnography and history.
• Books: Caste and Race in India (1932); The Aborigines – So-called – and Their Future (1943), later The Scheduled Tribes; Indian Sadhus (1953); Indian Costume (1951); Family and Kin in Indo-European Culture; Gotra and Charana; Culture and Society; Social Tensions in India; Cities and Civilization; Vedic India.
• Six features of caste (Ghurye):
  1. Segmental division of society
  2. Hierarchy
  3. Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse
  4. Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of different sections
  5. Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation
  6. Restrictions on marriage (endogamy)
• On tribes: he called them "backward Hindus" and favoured assimilation, against Verrier Elwin's isolation view.
• On caste origin: caste is a Brahmanic child of Indo-Aryan culture, developed in the Ganga plain (a combination of racial and cultural factors).

3.2 Radhakamal Mukerjee (1889–1968)

• A founder of the Lucknow School (with D.P. Mukerji and D.N. Majumdar). He taught economics and sociology at Lucknow University and later became its Vice-Chancellor.
• Approach: trans-disciplinary and holistic, combining economics, ecology, psychology and values.
• Pioneer of Social Ecology and Regional Sociology in India.
• Books: The Foundations of Indian Economics (1916); Regional Sociology (1926); Social Ecology; The Social Structure of Values; The Dynamics of Morals; The Social Functions of Art; The Philosophy of Social Science; Land Problems of India; Man and His Habitation.
• Key ideas: man, region and society are interdependent ("ecological balance"); a sociology of values, where values are the core of social life; "universal civilisation"; a critique of Western economics for Indian conditions.

3.3 A.R. Desai (Akshay Ramanlal Desai, 1915–1994)

• A student of Ghurye. A Marxist sociologist who used the dialectical-historical method.
• Books: Social Background of Indian Nationalism (1948); Recent Trends in Indian Nationalism (1960); Rural Sociology in India (1969, edited); State and Society in India (1975); Peasant Struggles in India (1979); Agrarian Struggles in India after Independence (1986).
• Key ideas: Indian nationalism arose from material conditions created by British colonialism, such as a new economy, new classes, modern education, the press and the railways. He described five phases of nationalism. He criticised the post-independence state as capitalist and the CDP and land reforms as benefiting rich peasants.

3.4 S.C. Dube (Shyama Charan Dube, 1922–1996)

• Anthropologist and sociologist of village studies, development and modernisation.
• Books: The Kamar (1951, a tribal study); Indian Village (1955) – a study of Shamirpet village near Hyderabad; India's Changing Villages (1958, on the impact of community development); Contemporary India and Its Modernization (1974); Tradition and Development (1990); Indian Society (NBT); Modernization and Development: The Search for Alternative Paradigms (1988).
• Key ideas: the village is not isolated, because it is linked with the wider society. Development must be people-centred and culturally sensitive. He critically analysed modernisation, and showed that the CDP had a "communication gap" between officials and villagers.

3.5 Other Indian thinkers (alternate list & frequently asked)

Unit 4 – Sociological Theories

4.1 Functionalism (Structural-Functionalism)

• Basic idea: society is a system of interrelated parts. Each part (institution) performs a function that helps maintain the whole, which tends towards equilibrium and consensus.
• Roots: Comte, Spencer (organic analogy), Durkheim.
• Bronislaw Malinowski: "individualistic" or psychological functionalism. Culture satisfies basic biological needs. Trobriand Islands fieldwork; Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922).
• A.R. Radcliffe-Brown: structural-functionalism. The function of a part is its contribution to maintaining the social structure. The Andaman Islanders (1922).
• Talcott Parsons:
  • AGIL – functional prerequisites of any system: Adaptation (economy), Goal attainment (polity), Integration (law, religion), Latency / pattern maintenance (family, education).
  • Pattern Variables (five pairs of choices): affectivity vs affective neutrality; diffuseness vs specificity; particularism vs universalism; ascription (quality) vs achievement (performance); collectivity orientation vs self orientation.
  • Voluntaristic theory of action; social system, cultural system, personality system.
• Robert K. Merton:
  • Manifest functions (intended, recognised) vs latent functions (unintended, unrecognised). Example: the Hopi rain dance has the manifest function of bringing rain and the latent function of group solidarity.
  • Dysfunction, non-function, functional alternatives (equivalents).
  • He criticised three postulates: functional unity, universal functionalism and indispensability.
  • Theories of the middle range.
• Criticism: conservative bias; ignores conflict and change; teleological.

4.2 Conflict Theory

• Basic idea: society is marked by inequality, competition for scarce resources and power. Conflict is the source of change.
• Karl Marx: class conflict between owners and workers (see Unit 2).
• Ralf Dahrendorf: Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (1959). Conflict is based on authority, not property, within "Imperatively Coordinated Associations" (ICAs). He spoke of quasi-groups and interest groups.
• Lewis Coser: The Functions of Social Conflict (1956). Conflict can be functional: it builds group unity and acts as a "safety valve". Realistic vs non-realistic conflict.
• C. Wright Mills: the power elite (military, corporate, political).
• Randall Collins: conflict sociology (micro-level).
• The Frankfurt School (Adorno, Horkheimer, Marcuse, Habermas) developed critical theory. Antonio Gramsci developed the concept of hegemony.

4.3 Theories of Social Change

4.4 Symbolic Interactionism

• Basic idea: people act on the basis of the meanings that things have for them. Meanings are created in interaction through symbols, especially language. This is a micro-level theory.
• George Herbert Mead: Mind, Self and Society (1934, posthumous). The self has two parts, the "I" (spontaneous, creative) and the "Me" (the socialised self, the attitudes of others). Stages of self-development: preparatory (imitation) → play → game. Generalised other; significant others; role-taking.
• Charles Horton Cooley: Looking-glass self (1902), with three elements: (1) how we imagine we appear to others, (2) how we imagine they judge us, (3) the resulting self-feeling (pride or shame).
• Herbert Blumer: coined the term "Symbolic Interactionism" (1937). Three premises: (1) humans act towards things based on meanings, (2) meanings arise from social interaction, (3) meanings are modified through an interpretive process.
• W.I. Thomas: "Definition of the situation". Thomas Theorem: "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences."
• Erving Goffman: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959) – dramaturgy, front stage / back stage, impression management. Asylums (1961) – total institutions. Stigma (1963).
• Schools: Chicago School (Blumer), Iowa School (Manford Kuhn).

4.5 Phenomenology & Ethnomethodology

• Edmund Husserl founded phenomenology in philosophy. It studies consciousness and how the world appears to people ("bracketing" or epoché).
• Alfred Schutz: founder of phenomenological sociology; The Phenomenology of the Social World (1932). Key ideas: life-world (Lebenswelt), typifications, stock of knowledge, intersubjectivity, "we-relations".
• Peter Berger & Thomas Luckmann: The Social Construction of Reality (1966). Three moments: externalisation → objectivation → internalisation.
• Harold Garfinkel: Ethnomethodology; Studies in Ethnomethodology (1967). It studies the methods people use to make sense of everyday life. Breaching experiments; indexicality; reflexivity.

Unit 5 – Major Social Institutions

5.1 Family

• MacIver & Page: "Family is a group defined by a sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children."
• Burgess & Locke: "a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption, constituting a single household, interacting... in their respective social roles."
• G.P. Murdock (Social Structure, 1949; a study of 250 societies): the nuclear family is universal. It has four functions: sexual, reproductive, economic, educational.
• Talcott Parsons: two "basic and irreducible" functions – primary socialisation of children and stabilisation of adult personalities.
• W.L. Warner: family of orientation (where you are born) vs family of procreation (formed by your marriage).

5.2 Marriage

• Westermarck (The History of Human Marriage, 1891): "a more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of the offspring."
• Types:
  • Monogamy (one spouse); serial monogamy.
  • Polygyny (one man, many wives); sororal polygyny means marrying sisters.
  • Polyandry (one woman, many husbands). Fraternal (adelphic): husbands are brothers – Todas (Nilgiris), Khasas of Jaunsar-Bawar. Non-fraternal: Nayars (Kerala).
  • Group marriage – many men with many women (rare).
• Rules of mate selection:
  • Endogamy: marriage within a group (caste, sub-caste, religion).
  • Exogamy: marriage outside a group (gotra, pravara, sapinda, village, totem).
  • Hypergamy (Anuloma): a woman marries a man of higher status. Hypogamy (Pratiloma): a woman marries a man of lower status.
  • Preferential marriage: cross-cousin (children of a brother and a sister – common in South India), parallel cousin (children of two brothers or two sisters – preferred among Muslims), levirate (widow marries her deceased husband's brother), sororate (widower marries his deceased wife's sister).
• Ways of acquiring a mate: by capture, by trial, by purchase (bride price – common in many tribes, e.g. among the Gonds and Bhils), by service, by exchange, by mutual consent, elopement.

5.3 Kinship

• Two types: Consanguineous (by blood) and Affinal (by marriage).
• Degrees: primary (8 primary relatives – father, mother, brother, sister, husband, wife, son, daughter), secondary (33), tertiary (151) – G.P. Murdock.
• Descent groups: lineage → clan (sib) → phratry → moiety.
• Kinship terminology: L.H. Morgan, Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (1871). Classificatory (one term for many relatives) vs descriptive (one term for one relative).
• Kinship usages:

  Usage	Meaning
  Avoidance	Relatives avoid each other, e.g. daughter-in-law and father-in-law.
  Joking relationship	Teasing is allowed, e.g. between devar and bhabhi, or jija and sali.
  Teknonymy	Addressing a person through their child (e.g. "Munna's father"). The term was introduced by E.B. Tylor.
  Avunculate	The mother's brother has special authority over the sister's children.
  Amitate	The father's sister has special importance.
  Couvade	The husband imitates the wife's labour and post-birth restrictions (Khasi, Toda).

• Irawati Karve's kinship zones: Northern, Central, Southern, Eastern.
• Claude Lévi-Strauss: The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949) – alliance theory; exchange of women; incest taboo as the basis of culture.

5.4 Religion

Functions of religion: social cohesion, social control, meaning and emotional support, legitimisation of norms, and a basis for social change (e.g. the Bhakti movement, reform movements).

Unit 6 – Social Processes

Social process = a repetitive form of social interaction. Park & Burgess (Introduction to the Science of Sociology, 1921) named four main processes: competition, conflict, accommodation, assimilation.

6.1 Co-operation

• Working together for a common goal. It is the most basic and universal process.
• MacIver: direct (working side by side) vs indirect (different tasks for a common end, as in the division of labour).
• Ogburn & Nimkoff: general co-operation, friendly co-operation, helpful co-operation.

6.2 Accommodation

• Adjustment between conflicting individuals or groups to reduce conflict. Conflict ends but the differences may remain. MacIver called it a process of adjusting to the environment.
• Forms: coercion (force), compromise, arbitration, mediation/conciliation, toleration, conversion, sublimation, rationalisation, subordination–superordination.
• Example: the caste system as an accommodation between groups.

6.3 Assimilation

• Park & Burgess: "a process of interpenetration and fusion in which persons and groups acquire the memories, sentiments and attitudes of other persons and groups."
• Features: slow, gradual, unconscious, two-way. Aids: tolerance, intermarriage, cultural similarity. Obstacles: ethnocentrism, prejudice.
• Acculturation: the change in culture due to continuous contact between groups (Redfield, Linton & Herskovits, 1936).

6.4 Competition vs Conflict

Types of conflict (Simmel and others): personal, racial, class, political, international. Gillin & Gillin classified social processes as associative and dissociative.

Unit 7 – Basic Concepts & Social Stratification

7.1 Society, Community, Association, Institution

7.2 Social Groups

7.3 Status & Role

• Ralph Linton (The Study of Man, 1936): Status is a position in society; role is the dynamic or behavioural aspect of status.
• Ascribed status (by birth: caste, sex, age) vs achieved status (by effort: doctor, teacher, IAS).
• Role-set (R.K. Merton): a set of role relationships linked to one status. Example: a teacher relates to students, the principal and parents.
• Status-set: all the statuses a person holds. Master status (E. Hughes) is the dominant status. Role conflict vs role strain.

7.4 Social Stratification

• The hierarchical arrangement of people into layers (strata) based on wealth, power, prestige and similar criteria.
• Melvin Tumin's features: social, ancient, universal, diverse in form, and consequential (it affects life chances).
• Forms: slavery, estate (feudal Europe), caste (closed), class (open).

7.5 Social Mobility

• P.A. Sorokin, Social Mobility (1927) – the first systematic study.
• Vertical mobility (upward or downward) vs horizontal mobility (change of position at the same level).
• Intergenerational (between parents and children) vs intragenerational (within one person's lifetime).
• Structural mobility results from changes in the economy.
• Open societies (class) allow high mobility; closed societies (caste) allow low mobility.

Unit 8 – Ecological Environment, Culture & Personality, Socialisation, Social Control, Social Change

8.1 Environment & Human Society (Human Ecology)

• The Chicago School (Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, R.D. McKenzie) founded human ecology. The city is seen as an ecological system.
• Concentric Zone Theory – E.W. Burgess (1925), with 5 zones: (1) Central Business District, (2) zone in transition, (3) zone of working men's homes, (4) residential zone, (5) commuter zone.
• Sector model – Homer Hoyt (1939). Multiple nuclei model – Harris & Ullman (1945).
• Ecological processes: concentration, centralisation, segregation, invasion, succession.
• Environmental determinism (Ratzel, Huntington) vs possibilism. Radhakamal Mukerjee's social ecology.
• Environmental movements in India: Chipko (1973, Uttarakhand; Sunderlal Bahuguna, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Gaura Devi of Reni village); Appiko (Karnataka, 1983); Narmada Bachao Andolan (Medha Patkar, 1985); Silent Valley (Kerala).
• Sustainable development: the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future (1987): "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

8.2 Culture

• E.B. Tylor (Primitive Culture, 1871): "Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."
• Features: learned, shared, transmitted, symbolic, adaptive, cumulative, varies from society to society.
• Material vs non-material culture (Ogburn). Cultural lag = non-material culture lags behind material culture.
• Culture trait (smallest unit) → culture complex → culture pattern.
• Ethnocentrism (Sumner) vs cultural relativism (Boas). Sub-culture, counter-culture; culture shock (Kalervo Oberg).
• Kroeber: culture is super-organic.

8.3 Culture & Personality

8.4 Socialisation

• The process through which an individual learns the norms, values and roles of society and becomes a social being.
• Types: primary (family, early childhood), secondary (school, peer group, workplace), anticipatory socialisation (Merton – learning the roles of a group one hopes to join), re-socialisation (in total institutions such as prisons, the army, asylums – Goffman), adult socialisation.
• Agencies: family (the most important), peer group, school, religion, mass media, the state, the workplace.
• Theories:

  Thinker	Theory
  C.H. Cooley	Looking-glass self
  G.H. Mead	I and Me; play and game stages; generalised other
  Sigmund Freud	Id (pleasure principle), Ego (reality principle), Superego (conscience); psychosexual stages
  Jean Piaget	Cognitive stages: sensorimotor (0–2) → pre-operational (2–7) → concrete operational (7–11) → formal operational (11+)
  Erik Erikson	8 psychosocial stages (trust vs mistrust, etc.)
  Durkheim	Education as the "methodical socialisation of the young"

• Feral / isolated children show the importance of socialisation: Kamala & Amala (wolf children, Midnapore, Bengal, 1920), Anna and Isabelle (USA), Ramu (Lucknow, 1954).

8.5 Social Control

• E.A. Ross first used the term systematically in Social Control (1901).
• Definition (MacIver & Page): "the way in which the entire social order coheres and maintains itself."
• Types:
  • Formal (law, police, courts, state, education rules) vs informal (folkways, mores, customs, religion, public opinion, gossip, ridicule).
  • Karl Mannheim: direct vs indirect control.
  • Kimball Young: positive (rewards) vs negative (punishment).
  • Gurvitch and others: organised, unorganised, spontaneous.
• Sumner: Folkways are customary ways of behaving, and violating them brings mild disapproval. Mores are folkways considered essential for group welfare, and violating them brings strong punishment. A taboo is a negative more.
• Agencies: family, religion, education, law, state, public opinion, propaganda, the media.

8.6 Social Change

• Kingsley Davis: "By social change is meant only such alterations as occur in social organisation – that is, the structure and functions of society."
• MacIver & Page: social change is change in social relationships.
• Related concepts: evolution (gradual, from simple to complex), progress (change in a desired direction, which carries a value judgement), development (planned change), revolution (sudden, radical change).
• Factors: technological (Ogburn, Veblen, Marx), economic (Marx), demographic, biological, cultural (Weber), geographical (Huntington), ideological, legal, educational, and the influence of great individuals.
• For theories of social change, see Unit 4.3.